The Lotus Sūtra in India

by

L. O. Gomez, University of Michigan

 

The focus of this unit is the text of the Lotus Sūtra as an example of an Indian Mahāyāna Sūtra and reading the Lotus Sūtra as an example of contemporary readings of Buddhist texts
 

Introduction

The Lotus Sūtra can (and should) be studied as an Indian text. A course on the Lotus Sūtra in its earliest environment would fill easily one semester of course work --although I would be reluctant to teach and undergraduate course exclusively on the Lotus Sūtra in India. Even as a short introduction to the study of the Lotus Sūtra in East Asia, a consideration of its possible roles in India and in the Northwest frontiers of India opens up a number of critical issues for the study of the Lotus Sūtra, and for the study of Buddhist scriptural texts in general. The main problem faced by students and instructors is the paucity of materials --but this may be used to some pedagogical advantage by focusing on the "primary" text. Needless to say, the idea that we do have a source text is in itself a problem that may be addressed with more advanced students.

Although I seldom limit a course to the Lotus Sūtra (it is very difficult to make sense of the text without some reference to related literature), the issues I like to raise in any course on Mahāyāna literature can be illustrated with a close reading of the Lotus Sūtra. These issues include
• the question of the modern construction of Buddhism, and more specifically of Mahāyāna Buddhism
• the textual and scriptural bias of Buddhist studies and how that affects our reading of a text like the Lotus Sūtra
• the creation of contemporary canons (the Lotus Sūtra being a primary example), and the accidents of history that produce such canons (E. Burnouf, Sacred Books of the East, R. Fujishima, J. Takakusu, the primacy of Japanese Buddhism)
• presuppositions of our models for (re-)constructing the relationship between India and Buddhism outside India
• alternative readings --e.g., the nature of polemical rhetoric and its use in scripture, scripture as literature, Sūtras as repositories of Buddhist motifs and stock phrases, Hindu variations on Lotus Sūtra themes, etc.

    The following examples of possible topics and readings only scratches the surface of this fascinating subject, nevertheless, a selection of some of the items described below could serve as a reference point for those who will be exploring the Lotus Sūtra in East Asia.

Organization

This Unit, The Lotus Sūtra In India, is divided into 10 Items. I use the word "item" advisedly to indicate that these are thematic clusters rather than lessons. Their definition and content conform to certain rationale, but are also to a certain extent arbitrarily formed. With the exception of Item #1, which seem to me is required by the cultural position in which students and instructor have been placed by destiny, the rest can be presented in various orders, in part or in full, with only minor adjustments. Items #1 and #2 can be condensed into a single lecture, if the students have some experience reading Buddhist texts of have an adequate knowledge of contemporary historical reconstructions of Buddhism.

The material under each item can be presented in a number of ways, in greater or lesser detail and depth, but an explication of the "primary text" alone can provide material for at the very least two 1 hour 20 minute periods (one week of a normal Tuesdays and Thursdays class), if we assume a close reading of the text.

I prefer to use the "primary readings" as the basis for lecture and explication, but a discussion previous to an introductory or interpretive lecture is often productive, and interesting discussions on the primary text can be encouraged easily with upper class students. With an active class, even if the students are inexperienced, a discussion of the students\ putatively "naive" or ostensibly unguided readings can convey (to students and instructor alike) vivid images of the problems inherent to reading an Indian Buddhist text, and elicit insightful comments regarding the prejudices that allow us to reconstruct meaning in these texts.

The secondary readings include selections that can be used for discussion, and readings that can be used by students that want to pursue a particular topic in a research paper or assigned theme (I regard the "questions for study" as possible topics for short papers). I am reluctant to suggest which would be which, since each one of us will have individual preferences --well-informed and intelligent, but preference and idiosyncratic nonetheless. Since secondary sources on this topic are still scarce, and often of marginal interest, students and instructor have both a greater burden and a greater freedom of exposition and interpretation. Work in the classroom is bound to reflect the problematic character of the object of study and the speculative character of the scholarship.

The topics of these lectures are (1) a "text" (in the Barthian sense) called The Lotus Sūtra Sūtra (perhaps also the Saddharma-puṇḍarīka), the body of literature associated with it, and Indian Mahāyāna generally. These three topics overlap, but only on the edges. Part of the challenge of the course is exploring the way in which we transform these three, separate, "ideas" into a cohesive narrative, on the basis of various readings of whichever English version of the Lotus Sūtra we choose for the class. More specific and less obvious questions that can be profitably discussed with the Lotus Sūtra as pre-text are: orthodoxy and canonicity the meaning of "doctrinal" messages (how do we use scriptural passages as source for arguments and narratives of doctrine) the distinction and relationship between form and content the narrative forms and processes in the text and in historical readings of the text the connections between narrative and reading on the one hand, and visions and ritualized images on the other further connections between the fantastic and the miraculous as narrative themes and as backdrops for possible practice and devotional rhetoric and, literary conventions and geographies of the spirit.

Topics and Readings

Introductory

Item #1
Preliminary short description of the text importance of the text for Western scholarship, and for East Asian Buddhism. The title, the genre, the language. Overview of dating issues theories regarding geographic origin. Position within the history of Buddhism, within the history of Buddhist ideas the problem of the early history of Mahāyāna, theories of Mahāyāna origins.

These issues are best presented in the forms of problems or questions. E.g., Why the Lotus Sūtra=

Where do we find the Lotus Sūtra in Indian commentarial literature= Archeology= How was the text used in those communities where we external evidence for its use and interpretation --e.g., Central Asia, China, Japan, and, last, but not least, the West.

The last of these topics is crucial, since it will be the entry to discussing our expectations and the prejudices of most of our sources. A number of approaches are possible, e.g. ask why the Lotus Sūtra is associated with upāya and how this term has been understood in Western literature, why is the Lotus Sūtra included under the heading "Compassion" in Williams (1989)= What does it mean to read the Lotus Sūtra through the eyes of our needs, what does it mean to read the Lotus Sūtra in a North American university, what goes into our traditions of reading scriptural texts or reading the Lotus Sūtra, what is the role of Japanese and European models=

Assuming this is a first lecture, there are no assigned readings, and the main responsibility for interpreting and constructing is in the instructor\s hands. But it might help to assign a topic or a set of guide questions when reminding students of the readings for the next lecture.

For further reading>

Hirakawa, 1990, chapters 16-18.

la Valle;e Poussin, 1908b.

Nakamura, 1987, chapter 16F.

Williams, 1989, chapter 7.

Winternitz, 1927.

Yuyama, 1970.

Item #2 Received readings
This item introduces the class to the themes and passages traditionally selected by Western scholars as the defining elements of the text. Prefaced by a few words of warning regarding the origins of these readings, the following themes and motifs are explained> (A) narratives -- (1) predictions of Buddhahood, (2) "parables" (either the so-called "prodigal son" or the story of the Burning House), (3) the apparition of Parbhūtaratna<(B) doctrinal motifs -- (4) Hinayana and Mahayana, (5) ekayana, (6) ahistorical dimension of the figure of "buddha," (7) apparition, appearance, and skillful means (upaya).

Primary>

The Burning House-- Chapter III.

Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti)-- Chapter IV.

Prediction-- Chapter VIII.

Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa-- Chapter XI.

Secondary>

Beyer, 1977.

Pye, 1971.

Rawlinson, 1986.

For further reading>

Matsunaga, 1974.

Pye, 1978.

Snodgrass, 1985.

Questions and topics>

(1) How do Buddhist "parables" differ in form and polemical intent from Gospel parables= Discuss the appropriateness of this traditional label.

(2) Evaluate Beyer and Rawlinson\s view of the role of visionary experience in light of the Lotus Sūtra passages you have read= Can you think of at least another one alternative interpretation to the passages they regard as visionary=

(3) Speculate on the persuasive or propaganda function of the prediction (vyākaraña) passages or on those of the transmission (anuparīndanā) passage.

(4) Like the transmission, the passages on "skillful means" (upāya) have an element of self-referentiality. Speculate on the persuasive power of such statements. Reading them as statements about the Lotus Sūtra Sūtra itself (rather than as Buddhist doctrines or general statements about "truth"), translate into your words what you think such statements are trying to tell us about the text itself.

(5) Much has been made of the role of the so-called doctrines of "emptiness" and "compassion" in the Lotus Sūtra. Write a short review of the position and significance of these doctrines in the passages read so far.

B. Approaches to Reading and Writing the Text of the Lotus Sūtra

Item #3 the Lotus Sūtra as a Document
This item raises several issues connected with the use of Sūtras as documents (rather than as texts). Sūtras are often used as the basis for historical reconstructions of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism. This is in part due to the paucity of "hard" historical records in the history of Indian Buddhism, but the problems inherent in the use of religious texts as historical documents needs to be addressed. This can be done by looking at any one or any set of the following "historical" questions and reflecting on the way we claim to "discover," "clarify" or "interpret" such issues in or through the text of the Lotus Sūtra> (1) the lay&#143;monastic dichotomy, (2) the question of the substratum and local religion vs. national or translocal and multilocal religion, (3) the nature, date, and location of the origins of early Mahāyāna, (4) the historical significance (if any) of the śrāvaka &#143; bodhisattva distinction, (5) the cult of the book and the cult of the stūpa, (6) the problem of the so-called apotheosis of the Buddha, and "Buddhist docetism."

Primary>

Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti)-- Chapter IV.

Simile of the Rain Cloud-- Chapter V.

Prediction 1 (vyākaraa)-- Chapter VI).

Prediction 2-- Chapter VIII.

Prediction 3-- Chapter IX.

Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāaka)-- Chapter X.

Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa-- Chapter XI.

Sukhavihāra-- Chapter XII> Peaceful Life.

Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas-- Chapter XIV.

Life span of the Tathagata (āyusã-pramāa)-- Chapter XV.

Secondary>

Bechert, 1957, 1963, 1973.

Gombrich, 1990.

Hirakawa, 1963.

Hoffman, 1992.

Robinson, 1966, 19.

Schopen, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1985.

For further reading>

Paul, 1979.

Rawlinson, 1987.

Snodgrass, 1985.

Schuster, 1985.

Robinson, 1966.

Smith, Jonathan Z., 1982.

Questions and topics

(1) Reflect on possible connections between a text such as the Lotus Sūtra and the cult of the stūpa and the Buddha image. What sorts of arguments and assumptions would have to be adopted to see a necessary connection between the doctrines of the Lotus Sūtra and the development of a cult of images and stupas=

(2) Do you see any evidence of lay influence in the Lotus Sūtra= Any evidence that the text was directed at a lay audience=

(3) Can we learn something about the position of women in the Sangha at the time that the text was composed=

(4) What elements of the text could be seen as reflecting a "monachizing" influence or tendency in the Sūtra=

(5) Reconstruct a "scenario" or historical narrative describing the tensions between communities and beliefs that could have been a referent for the doctrine and parables regarding the Three Vehicles and the One Vehicle.

(6) Describe in your own words the "new image" of the Buddha suggested in the various ways the Lotus Sūtra presents the figure of buddhas. Can we extrapolate anything about doctrine and practice from those images=

Item # 4> Doctrines and symbols

This topic focuses on some of the issues previously introduced in the first three items, but in a lesson or group of lessons organized around a different point of view. The issue here is "dogma" and canonicity, that is, the systematic organization of propositions of belief under certain canonized labels (the symbolum of Medieval dogmatics). Under this heading one can revisit notions such as upāya and the ekayāna exploring the meaning (usage and scholastic definitions) of these terms in the Lotus Sūtra, and their subsequent use outside the Lotus Sūtra, including their use in contemporary literature about Buddhism. In examining these items of belief from this perspective, one can ask the students to consider questions of authority and orthodoxyLotus Sūtra as canon Primary>

Upāya (upāyakauśalya), Chapter II.

The Burning House, Chapter III.

Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti), Chapter IV).

Simile of the Rain Cloud, Chapter V.

Prediction 1 (vyākaraa), Chapter VI.

Prediction 2, Chapter VIII.

Prediction 3, Chapter IX.

Exertion, Chapter XII.

Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas, Chapter XIV.

The Patience and Humility of the Bodhisattva Sadāparibhuta, Chapter XIX.

Miraculous Powers (rãddhy-abhisamśskāra), Chapter XX>

Secondary>

Matsunaga, 1969.

Pye, 1971, 1978.

Rawlinson, 1986.

Ray, Reginald A. (1985).

Smith, Jonathan Z., 1982.

Toda, 1968.

For further reading>

Buddhāvatamsaka (Mahāyāna Mahāvaipulya Sūtra).

Masefield, 1986.

Matsunaga, 1974.

Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa.

Questions and topics>

(1) What are the Sūtra's claims on authority= In other words, which narratives and which doctrinal interpretations (choices of proof texts) can be used for making claims that define the perimeter of orthodoxy and exclude other Buddhists=

(2) How will our answer to question 1 affect the way we read the Sūtra as a historical document=

(3) How do notion such as "skillful means" and the One Vehicle affect the way we read the text=

(4) Which Western prejudices (that you can identify in yourself) are confirmed or challenged by traditional readings of the doctrine of skillful means=

Item #5> Figures and symbols

Under this topic we explore some of the religious themes of the Sūtra as pairs of symbols embodying special relationships with the sacred --e.g., practice and worship on the side of deluded sentient beings, enlightenment and saving grace from the side of buddhas and bodhisattvas. Important issues of merit (puñya, kuśala) and of divine intervention (vikurvaña, anubhāva) can be included as still other binary sets. Also pertinent are the questions of singularity and plurality of buddhas, and the roles and stature of bodhisattvas, on the one hand, and the nature and form of devotion described, prescribed or suggested in the Lotus Sūtra.

Primary>

Simile of the Rain Cloud-- Chapter V.

Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City-- Chapter VII.

Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa-- Chapter XI.

Exertion-- Chapter XII.

Sukhavihāra-- Chapter XII.

Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas-- Chapter XIV.

Dedication of Merit (puñya-paryāya)-- Chapter XVI.

The Merits of Rejoicing in Merit (anumodanā-puñya-nirdeśa)-- Chapter XVII.

The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing)-- Chapter XXIV.

Samantabhadra (Samantabhadra-utsāhana)-- Chapter XXVI.

Secondary>

Bareau, 1969.

Basham, 1981.

Harrison, 1987.

Jan, 1981.

Kajiyama, 1985.

Lethcoe, 1977.

Mus, 1926.

Nagao, 1981.

Schopen, 1977, 1979, 1985.

Schuster, 1985.

For further reading>

Birnbaum, 1987.

Buddhāvatamśsaka.

Fontein, 1967.

Fujita, 1980.

Holt, 1991.

Kent, 1982.

la Valle;e Poussin, 1908a.

Perfection of Wisdom in 8000 lines (Conze)

Tay, C. N. (1976).

Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa.

Questions and topics>

(1) Does it make sense to talk about emptiness on the one hand, and merit on the other, about the need for self-effort and the saving power of the bodhisattvas= Can you explain this paradox without relying on the doctrine of upāya=

(2) Describe in your own words possible social functions for buddhas and bodhisattvas as religious ideals and as ethical paradigms.

(3) Discuss chapters XI and XIV from the perspective of the value of visionary scenes as expressions of a relationship between believer and ideal being.

Item #6 Practices and Events

This unit can be used as a supplement or a recapitulation of the previous two, or it can be used instead of the previous two. The focus here is on the form and content of symbols viewed from the perspective of religious practices. This includes a discussion of the ritual gestures and procedures accompanying the dedication of merit, the worship of stūpas and buddha images, and pilgrimages. Although most of the evidence for such practices is indirect, it is worth speculating on the ritual and religious practice that may underlie the Lotus Sūtra. Various scholars have claimed to see evidence of the cult of the book, the cult of the stūpa, and the cult of the bodhisattvas in the Lotus Sūtra. One can also discuss the role of former buddhas, future buddhas, and eternal buddhas (or rather, buddhas whose life span is measureless or incalculable). The meaning of the miraculous, the fantastic, and belief in miraculous events and intervention by the bodhisattvas is best discussed under this heading too.

All of these are themes found throughout Mahāyāna Sūtra literature, and therefore can be studied as elements for a narrative reconstruction of the history, doctrines and practices of Mahāyāna.

In item #9 the problem of sacred place and sacred journey is discussed in connection to the figure of Avalokiteśvara and his further development in East Asia. Thus, the present item #6 overlaps with item #9, one can combine the two into one single unit or lesson, omitting items 7 &;8.

Primary>

Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti), Chapter IV.

Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa, Chapter XI.

Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas, Chapter XIV.

Life span of the Tathagata (āyusã-pramāña), Chapter XV.

Dedication of Merit (puñya-paryāya), Chapter XVI.

The Merits of Rejoicing in Merit (anumodanā-puñya-nirdeśa), Chapter XVII.

Miraculous Powers (rãddhy-abhisamśskāra), Chapter XX.

Dhārañī, Chapter XXI.

The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing), Chapter XXIV.

Secondary>

Bharati, 1970.

Birnbaum, 1987.

Darian, 1970.

Dykstra, 1983.

Holt, 1991.

Kitagawa, 1967.

la Valle;e Poussin, 1908a.

Osaka Shiritsu Bijutsukan, 1987.

Reischauer, 1955.

Schopen, 1975, 1985.

Tay, C. N. (1976)

For further reading>

Banzai, 1973.

Bharati, 1970.

Birnbaum, 1987.

Darian, 1970.

Davidson, 1954.

Davidson, 1992.

Dykstra, 1983.

Fontein, 1967.

Keyes, 1975, 1987.

Mallman, 1948.

Mus, 1926.

Nakamura, K. M. 1973.

Ono, 1982-1983.

Schopen, 1979.

Snellgrove, 1957, 1961.

Statler, 1983.

Tanabe &;Tanabe, 1989.

Tanabe, 1988.

Questions and topics>

(1) Discuss the concept of transference or dedication of merit as it appears in the Lotus Sūtra. Consider its possible importance in the development of Mahāyāna in light of the historical reconstructions proposed by Hirakawa, Bechert, and Schopen.

(2) What intimations do you find in the Lotus Sūtra that its audience may have engaged in one of the following practices> the worship of stūpas, the worship of buddha images, some form of cult of the book, or pilgrimages.

(3) Discuss the role, in the narrative development of the Lotus Sūtra, of ideal or celestial figures such as buddhas and bodhisattvas.

(4) Can we speak of a cult of the bodhisattvas in the Lotus Sūtra= Explain and justify your answer.

(5) Discuss the appearance and role of former buddhas, future buddhas, and eternal buddhas in the Lotus Sūtra.

Item #7 Sacred Speech

This item introduces the theme of religion and language in the Lotus Sūtra. This covers issues such as the sacred word, sacred speech, orality and inspired speech, as well as the question of the transmission and interpretation of the sacred word. Although all these themes overlap considerably with the question of skillful means, I prefer to bracket the concept temporarily to give ourselves time to reflect on other meanings of language, metaphor, and transmission. As a lesson or unit, this item can be started with a close reading of the chapters on

dhārañīs and dharma-bhāñakas.

Primary>

The Burning House, Chapter III.

Simile of the Rain Cloud, Chapter V.

Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City, Chapter VII.

Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāñaka), Chapter X.

Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stūpa, Chapter XI.

Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 2 (dharmabhāñaka-anuśamśsā), Chapter XVIII.

Dhārañī, Chapter XXI.

Purva-yoga 2, Bhaisãajya-rājā, Chapter XXII.

Gadgadasvara, Chapter XXIII.

Secondary>

Bechert, 1957, 1963, 1973.

Braarvig, 1985.

Collins, 1990.

Cousins, 1987.

Gombrich, 1990.

Graham, 1987b.

Harrison, 1987.

Hoffman, 1992.

McQueen, 1981, 1982.

Rawlinson, 1987.

For further reading>

Beardsley, 1977.

Cabezo;n, 1992.

Clark, 1930.

Graham, 1987a.

Questions and topics>

(1) Discuss one example of a statement or narrative in the Lotus Sūtra that suggests a conscious conception of language and discourse.

(2) How is language used or conceptualized in the service of the texts apologetic arguments=

(3) Discuss the concept of inspired speech from one of the following perspectives> the question of the visionary origins of Mahāyāna, the rhetoric of sacred texts, Western interest in the Lotus Sūtra and its message, the question of orthodoxy.

(4) Without referring to the doctrine of skillful means, reconstruct a Buddhist apology for the authority of the sacred utterances of the Buddha --base your apologetic argument on statements culled from the Lotus Sūtra.

Item #8 Literary Themes

In this unit the emphasis on language shifts from discourse to text, and from sacred speech to literary form and function. The Lotus Sūtra is studies as a "work" of sacred literature or as an anthology of sacred texts. One can begin by using the dhārañī as an example of a literary genre, discussing its functions and forms. A few narrative passages can be chosen as pretexts for a discussion of literary elements, structures and devices such as figures, actants, metaphors.

The lesson(s) could include a comparison with similar forms in other Sūtras.

Primary>

Preamble (Nidāna), Chapter I.

The Burning House, Chapter III.

Simile of the Rain Cloud, Chapter V.

Prediction 1 (vyākaraña), Chapter VI.

Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City, Chapter VII.

Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāñaka), Chapter X.

Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa, Chapter XI.

Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas, Chapter XIV.

Pūrva-yoga 2, Bhaisaja-raja, Chapter XXII.

The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing), Chapter XXIV.

Transmission (anuparīndanā), Chapter XXVII.

Secondary>

Braarvig, 1985.

Darian, 1970.

Gombrich, 1990.

Kent, 1982.

Smith, W. C., 1989.

For further reading>

Bechert, 1973.

Chang, 1983. Mahāratnakūèa.

Conze, 1973. The Perfection of Wisdom in eight thousand lines.

Dantinne, 1983.

Fujita, 1980.

Kajiyama, 1985.

Lamotte, 1962&#143;1976. Vimalakīrti.

Mus, 1926.

Regamey, 1990. Bhadramāyākāravyākaraña.

Questions and topics>

(1) Discuss the figure of Prabhūtaratna and the event of his apparition, as literary devices used to create changes in perspective, space and time in the Sūtra\s audience.

(2) Discuss any aspect of the use of metaphor in the Lotus Sūtra that you think can help advance our understanding of the nature of tropes in religious discourse.

(3) Analyze the narrative structure of the Sūtra or of any of the imbedded stories. Explain how such an analysis can help us understand the text as a religious text. &#129;If you wish to challenge the assumptions behind this question regarding the relationship between literature and religion, you can use such a challenge as your paper topic.

(4) Advance your own hypothesis regarding the function or history of the verse portions in the Sūtra. Provide evidence that could help prove or disprove your hypothesis.

Item #9 Many Texts in a Single Sūtra

This item continues the analysis of the previous one, but here we consider as independent texts some of the subtexts or text fragments that compose the Sūtra. Special attention is devoted to the 24th chapter (25th in Chinese), to its litany, its artistic representations, and its possible connection with pilgrimage cycles in India. Lectures will have to rely heavily on comparative hypothesis --looking at pilgrimage cycles in Hinduism and in China, and into texts like the Mahāmayūrī and the Gañdãavyūha.

The discussion can begin with the dhārañīs and move on to the litany, but the focus of this unit is extended narrative sequences. Apart from the obvious case of the "parables," other subtexts amenable to treatment as stock narratives, allusive narrative, or echoes, include the story of the Daughter of the Nāga King and several pūrva-yogas and related narrative segments (e.g. Sadāparibhūta, Bhaisãajyarājā, etc.).

Primary>

Preamble (Nidāna)-- Chapter I.

The Burning House, Chapter III.

Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti), Chapter IV.

Simile of the Rain Cloud, Chapter V.

Prediction 1 (vyākaraña), Chapter VI.

Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City, Chapter VII.

Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāñaka), Chapter X.

Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa, Chapter XI.

Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas, Chapter XIV.

Dedication of Merit (puñya-paryāya), Chapter XVI.

Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 2 (dharmabhāñaka-anuśamśsā), Chapter XVIII.

The Patience and Humility of the Bodhisattva Sadāparibhūta-- Chapter XIX.

Dhārañī, Chapter XXI.

The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing), Chapter XXIV.

Secondary>

Darian, 1970.

Dykstra, 1983.

Fujita, 1980.

Holt, 1991.

Kajiyama, 1985.

Kato, et al., 1975.

la Valle;e Poussin, 1908a

Schopen, 1978.

Tay, 1976.

For further reading>

Birnbaum, 1987.

Davidson, 1954.

Mallman, 1948.

Mus, 1926.

Nakamura, K. M., 1973.

Osaka Shiritsu Bijutsukan, 1987.

Schopen, 1985.

Soper, 1959.

Tanabe &;Tanabe 1989.

Questions and topics>

(1) Compare the position and content of the Avalokiteśvara litany in the Lotus Sūtra and the Avatamsaka (Gañdãavyūha).

(2) Speculate on possible extra-textual reasons for the inclusion of the 24th chapter in the Lotus Sūtra --what does this suggest regarding the history, nature, and cohesion of Sūtras=

(3) Formulate a preliminary theory regarding the defining characteristics (formal, functional) of the pūrva-yoga.

Item #10 Buddhist Polemics Revisited

By way of conclusion, the class revisits some of the doctrinal and polemical issues raised in Items 1 through 5. The goal is to help the student (and the instructor) integrate and internalize the perspectives presented in all of the previous discussions, in other words, to lay the groundwork for a new synthesis and understanding of the old categories, and perhaps the beginnings of alternative hypotheses and paradigms.

The concepts revisited include upāya (upāyakauśalya), emptiness and illusory bodies, Mahāyāna and ekayāna, the nature of nirvana (redefinitions in the Lotus Sūtra), the eternal buddha and "docetism," broad concepts of Buddhahood and Bodhisattvahood. I prefer to approach these problems by reformulating and reposing the question of the origins of Mahāyāna, asking what if there would be any difference in the answer if we looked at the Lotus Sūtra as a text of Mahāyāna instead of looking at it as a document for the early history of Mahāyāna.

Primary>

Upāya (upāyakauśalya), Chapter II.

The Burning House, Chapter III.

Prediction 2, Chapter VIII.

Prediction 3, Chapter IX.

Life span of the Tathagata (āyusã-pramāña), Chapter XV.

The Patience and Humility of the Bodhisattva Sadāparibhūta, Chapter XIX.

Samantabhadra (samantabhadra-utsāhana), Chapter XVI.

Transmission (anuparīndanā), Chapter XXVII.

Secondary>

Anesaki, 1908.

Bareau, 1969.

Basham, 1981.

Bechert, 1973.

Darian, 1970.

Kent, 1982.

Masefield, 1986.

Mus, 1926.

Mizuno, 1982.

Schopen, 1978.

For further reading>

Cabezo;n, 1992.

Davidson, 1992.

Lamotte, 1954.

Hirakawa, 1990, chapters 16-18.

Mus, 1926.

Mizuno, 1982.

Nakamura, 1987, chapter 16F.

Tao-sheng (Kim, 1990).

Williams, 1989, chapter 7.

Winternitz, 1927.

Yuyama, 1970.

Questions and topics>

(1) In light of what you have learned so far, reconsider the question of the Lotus Sūtra as a witness to early Mahāyāna in India.

(2) Consider the Lotus Sūtra as an artifact of early Mahāyāna. What can you tell about the nature of Mahāyāna= What sort of human phenomenon was it=

(3) Consider the Lotus Sūtra as a collection of voices from an early stage in the formation of Mahāyāna. Trace one of these voices in the text and imagine how this voice would explain the connection (historical or spiritual or both) between the words of the Lotus Sūtra and the words of the Buddha S:ākyamuni.

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Summary of Chapter Content and Correspondences

Preamble (Nidāna)

Kern, Chapter I> Introduction

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 1. Introduction).

Upāya (upāyakauśalya)

Kern, Chapter II> Skilfulness

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 2. Expedient Devices).

The Burning House

Kern, Chapter III> A Parable

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 3. Parable).

Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti)

Kern, Chapter IV> Disposition

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 4. Belief and Understanding).

Simile of the Rain Cloud

Kern, Chapter V> On Plants

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 5. Medicinal Herbs).

Prediction 1 (vyākaraña)

Kern, Chapter VI> Announcement of Future Destiny

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 6. Bestowal of Prophecy).

Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City Kern, Chapter VII> Ancient Devotion

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 7. Parable of the Conjured City).

Prediction 2

Kern, Chapter VIII>Announcement of the Future Destiny of the

Five Hundred Monks

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 8. Receipt of Prophecy by Five Hundred Disciples).

Prediction 3

Kern, Chapter IX> Announcement of the Future Destiny of Ananda, Rahula, and the Two Thousand Monks (_ Hurvitz, Chapter 9. Prophecies Conferred on Learners and Adepts).

Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāñaka)

Kern, Chapter X> The Preacher

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 10. Preachers of Dharma).

Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stūpa Kern, Chapter XI> Apparition of a Stupa (_ (_ Hurvitz, Chapter 11. Apparition of the Jeweled Stupa,

&;Chapter 12. Devadatta).

Exertion

Kern, Chapter XII> Exertion

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 13. Fortitude.

Sukhavihāra

Kern, Chapter XII> Peaceful Life

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 14. Comfortable Conduct).

Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas

Kern, Chapter XIV>Issuing of Bodhisattvas from the Gaps of the Earth

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 16. Welling Up Out of the Earth).

Life span of the Tathagata (āyusã-pramāña)

Kern, Chapter XV> Duration of Life of the Tathagata

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 16. The Life Span of the Thus Come One).

Dedication of Merit (puñya-paryāya)

Kern, Chapter XVI>Of Piety

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 17. Discrimination of Merits).

The Merits of Rejoicing in Merit (anumodanā-puñya-nirdeśa) Kern, Chapter XVII>Indication of the Meritoriousness of Joyful Acceptance

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 18. The Merits of Appropriate Joy).

Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 2 (dharmabhāñaka-anuśamśsā)

Kern, Chapter XVIII> The Advantages of a Religious Preacher (Hurvitz, Chapter 19. The Merits of the Dharma-Preacher).

The Patience and Humility of the Bodhisattva Sadāparibhūta

Kern, Chapter XIX> Sadāparibhūta

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 20. The Bodhisattva Never Disparaging).

Miraculous Powers (rãddhy-abhisamśskāra)

Kern, Chapter XX> Conception of the Transcendent Power of the Tathagata

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 21. The Supernatural Powers of the Thus Come One).

Dhārañī

Kern, Chapter XXI> Spells (_ Hurvitz, Chapter 26. Dharani).

Purva-yoga 2, Bhaisajya-rājā

Kern, Chapter XXII> Ancient Devotion of Bhaishagyaraga

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 23. The Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine King).

Gadgadasvara

Kern, Chapter XXIII> Gadgadasvara

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 24. The Bodhisattva Fine Sound).

The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing).

Kern, Chapter XXIV> The All-sided One

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 25. The Gateway to Everywhere of the Bodhisattva He Who Observes the Sounds of the World).

Pūrva-yoga 3 (S:ubhavyūharāja)

Kern, Chapter XXV> Ancient Devotion

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 27. The Former Affairs of the King Fine Adornment).

Samantabhadra (samantabhadra-utsāhana)

Kern, Chapter XXVI> Encouragement of Samantabhadra

(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 28. The Encouragement of the Bodhisattva

Universally Worthy).

Transmission (anuparīndanā)

Kern, Chapter XXVII>The Period (_ Hurvitz, Chapter 22. Entrustment).


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