The focus of this unit is the text of the Lotus Sūtra as an example
of an Indian Mahāyāna Sūtra and reading the Lotus Sūtra as an example
of contemporary readings of Buddhist texts
Although I seldom limit a course to the Lotus Sūtra (it is very
difficult to make sense of the text without some reference to related literature),
the issues I like to raise in any course on Mahāyāna literature can be
illustrated with a close reading of the Lotus Sūtra. These issues
include
• the question of the modern construction of Buddhism, and more specifically
of Mahāyāna Buddhism
• the textual and scriptural bias of Buddhist studies and how that
affects our reading of a text like the Lotus Sūtra
• the creation of contemporary canons (the Lotus Sūtra being
a primary example), and the accidents of history that produce such canons
(E. Burnouf, Sacred Books of the East, R. Fujishima, J. Takakusu, the primacy
of Japanese Buddhism)
• presuppositions of our models for (re-)constructing the relationship
between India and Buddhism outside India
• alternative readings --e.g., the nature of polemical rhetoric and
its use in scripture, scripture as literature, Sūtras as repositories of
Buddhist motifs and stock phrases, Hindu variations on Lotus Sūtra
themes, etc.
The following examples of possible topics and readings only scratches the surface of this fascinating subject, nevertheless, a selection of some of the items described below could serve as a reference point for those who will be exploring the Lotus Sūtra in East Asia.
The material under each item can be presented in a number of ways, in greater or lesser detail and depth, but an explication of the "primary text" alone can provide material for at the very least two 1 hour 20 minute periods (one week of a normal Tuesdays and Thursdays class), if we assume a close reading of the text.
I prefer to use the "primary readings" as the basis for lecture and explication, but a discussion previous to an introductory or interpretive lecture is often productive, and interesting discussions on the primary text can be encouraged easily with upper class students. With an active class, even if the students are inexperienced, a discussion of the students\ putatively "naive" or ostensibly unguided readings can convey (to students and instructor alike) vivid images of the problems inherent to reading an Indian Buddhist text, and elicit insightful comments regarding the prejudices that allow us to reconstruct meaning in these texts.
The secondary readings include selections that can be used for discussion, and readings that can be used by students that want to pursue a particular topic in a research paper or assigned theme (I regard the "questions for study" as possible topics for short papers). I am reluctant to suggest which would be which, since each one of us will have individual preferences --well-informed and intelligent, but preference and idiosyncratic nonetheless. Since secondary sources on this topic are still scarce, and often of marginal interest, students and instructor have both a greater burden and a greater freedom of exposition and interpretation. Work in the classroom is bound to reflect the problematic character of the object of study and the speculative character of the scholarship.
The topics of these lectures are (1) a "text" (in the Barthian sense) called The Lotus Sūtra Sūtra (perhaps also the Saddharma-puṇḍarīka), the body of literature associated with it, and Indian Mahāyāna generally. These three topics overlap, but only on the edges. Part of the challenge of the course is exploring the way in which we transform these three, separate, "ideas" into a cohesive narrative, on the basis of various readings of whichever English version of the Lotus Sūtra we choose for the class. More specific and less obvious questions that can be profitably discussed with the Lotus Sūtra as pre-text are: orthodoxy and canonicity the meaning of "doctrinal" messages (how do we use scriptural passages as source for arguments and narratives of doctrine) the distinction and relationship between form and content the narrative forms and processes in the text and in historical readings of the text the connections between narrative and reading on the one hand, and visions and ritualized images on the other further connections between the fantastic and the miraculous as narrative themes and as backdrops for possible practice and devotional rhetoric and, literary conventions and geographies of the spirit.
These issues are best presented in the forms of problems or questions. E.g., Why the Lotus Sūtra=
Where do we find the Lotus Sūtra in Indian commentarial literature= Archeology= How was the text used in those communities where we external evidence for its use and interpretation --e.g., Central Asia, China, Japan, and, last, but not least, the West.
The last of these topics is crucial, since it will be the entry to discussing our expectations and the prejudices of most of our sources. A number of approaches are possible, e.g. ask why the Lotus Sūtra is associated with upāya and how this term has been understood in Western literature, why is the Lotus Sūtra included under the heading "Compassion" in Williams (1989)= What does it mean to read the Lotus Sūtra through the eyes of our needs, what does it mean to read the Lotus Sūtra in a North American university, what goes into our traditions of reading scriptural texts or reading the Lotus Sūtra, what is the role of Japanese and European models=
Assuming this is a first lecture, there are no assigned readings, and the main responsibility for interpreting and constructing is in the instructor\s hands. But it might help to assign a topic or a set of guide questions when reminding students of the readings for the next lecture.
For further reading>
Hirakawa, 1990, chapters 16-18.
la Valle;e Poussin, 1908b.
Nakamura, 1987, chapter 16F.
Williams, 1989, chapter 7.
Winternitz, 1927.
Yuyama, 1970.
Primary>
The Burning House-- Chapter III.
Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti)-- Chapter IV.
Prediction-- Chapter VIII.
Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa-- Chapter XI.
Secondary>
Beyer, 1977.
Pye, 1971.
Rawlinson, 1986.
For further reading>
Matsunaga, 1974.
Pye, 1978.
Snodgrass, 1985.
Questions and topics>
(1) How do Buddhist "parables" differ in form and polemical intent from Gospel parables= Discuss the appropriateness of this traditional label.
(2) Evaluate Beyer and Rawlinson\s view of the role of visionary experience in light of the Lotus Sūtra passages you have read= Can you think of at least another one alternative interpretation to the passages they regard as visionary=
(3) Speculate on the persuasive or propaganda function of the prediction (vyākaraña) passages or on those of the transmission (anuparīndanā) passage.
(4) Like the transmission, the passages on "skillful means" (upāya) have an element of self-referentiality. Speculate on the persuasive power of such statements. Reading them as statements about the Lotus Sūtra Sūtra itself (rather than as Buddhist doctrines or general statements about "truth"), translate into your words what you think such statements are trying to tell us about the text itself.
(5) Much has been made of the role of the so-called doctrines of "emptiness" and "compassion" in the Lotus Sūtra. Write a short review of the position and significance of these doctrines in the passages read so far.
Primary>
Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti)-- Chapter IV.
Simile of the Rain Cloud-- Chapter V.
Prediction 1 (vyākaraṇa)-- Chapter VI).
Prediction 2-- Chapter VIII.
Prediction 3-- Chapter IX.
Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāṇaka)-- Chapter X.
Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa-- Chapter XI.
Sukhavihāra-- Chapter XII> Peaceful Life.
Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas-- Chapter XIV.
Life span of the Tathagata (āyusã-pramāṇa)-- Chapter XV.
Secondary>
Bechert, 1957, 1963, 1973.
Gombrich, 1990.
Hirakawa, 1963.
Hoffman, 1992.
Robinson, 1966, 19.
Schopen, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1985.
For further reading>
Paul, 1979.
Rawlinson, 1987.
Snodgrass, 1985.
Schuster, 1985.
Robinson, 1966.
Smith, Jonathan Z., 1982.
Questions and topics
(1) Reflect on possible connections between a text such as the Lotus Sūtra and the cult of the stūpa and the Buddha image. What sorts of arguments and assumptions would have to be adopted to see a necessary connection between the doctrines of the Lotus Sūtra and the development of a cult of images and stupas=
(2) Do you see any evidence of lay influence in the Lotus Sūtra= Any evidence that the text was directed at a lay audience=
(3) Can we learn something about the position of women in the Sangha at the time that the text was composed=
(4) What elements of the text could be seen as reflecting a "monachizing" influence or tendency in the Sūtra=
(5) Reconstruct a "scenario" or historical narrative describing the tensions between communities and beliefs that could have been a referent for the doctrine and parables regarding the Three Vehicles and the One Vehicle.
(6) Describe in your own words the "new image" of the Buddha suggested in the various ways the Lotus Sūtra presents the figure of buddhas. Can we extrapolate anything about doctrine and practice from those images=
Item # 4> Doctrines and symbols
This topic focuses on some of the issues previously introduced in the
first three items, but in a lesson or group of lessons organized around
a different point of view. The issue here is "dogma" and canonicity, that
is, the systematic organization of propositions of belief under certain
canonized labels (the symbolum of Medieval dogmatics). Under this heading
one can revisit notions such as upāya and the ekayāna exploring the meaning
(usage and scholastic definitions) of these terms in the Lotus Sūtra,
and their subsequent use outside the Lotus Sūtra, including their
use in contemporary literature about Buddhism. In examining these items
of belief from this perspective, one can ask the students to consider questions
of authority and orthodoxy Upāya (upāyakauśalya), Chapter II.
The Burning House, Chapter III.
Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti), Chapter IV).
Simile of the Rain Cloud, Chapter V.
Prediction 1 (vyākaraṇa), Chapter VI.
Prediction 2, Chapter VIII.
Prediction 3, Chapter IX.
Exertion, Chapter XII.
Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas, Chapter XIV.
The Patience and Humility of the Bodhisattva Sadāparibhuta, Chapter
XIX.
Miraculous Powers (rãddhy-abhisamśskāra), Chapter XX>
Secondary>
Matsunaga, 1969.
Pye, 1971, 1978.
Rawlinson, 1986.
Ray, Reginald A. (1985).
Smith, Jonathan Z., 1982.
Toda, 1968.
For further reading>
Buddhāvatamsaka (Mahāyāna Mahāvaipulya Sūtra).
Masefield, 1986.
Matsunaga, 1974.
Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa.
Questions and topics>
(1) What are the Sūtra's claims on authority= In other words, which
narratives and which doctrinal interpretations (choices of proof texts)
can be used for making claims that define the perimeter of orthodoxy and
exclude other Buddhists=
(2) How will our answer to question 1 affect the way we read the Sūtra
as a historical document=
(3) How do notion such as "skillful means" and the One Vehicle affect
the way we read the text=
(4) Which Western prejudices (that you can identify in yourself) are
confirmed or challenged by traditional readings of the doctrine of skillful
means=
Item #5> Figures and symbols
Under this topic we explore some of the religious themes of the Sūtra
as pairs of symbols embodying special relationships with the sacred --e.g.,
practice and worship on the side of deluded sentient beings, enlightenment
and saving grace from the side of buddhas and bodhisattvas. Important issues
of merit (puñya, kuśala) and of divine intervention (vikurvaña, anubhāva)
can be included as still other binary sets. Also pertinent are the questions
of singularity and plurality of buddhas, and the roles and stature of bodhisattvas,
on the one hand, and the nature and form of devotion described, prescribed
or suggested in the Lotus Sūtra.
Primary>
Simile of the Rain Cloud-- Chapter V.
Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City-- Chapter VII.
Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa-- Chapter XI.
Exertion-- Chapter XII.
Sukhavihāra-- Chapter XII.
Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas-- Chapter XIV.
Dedication of Merit (puñya-paryāya)-- Chapter XVI.
The Merits of Rejoicing in Merit (anumodanā-puñya-nirdeśa)-- Chapter
XVII.
The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing)-- Chapter XXIV.
Samantabhadra (Samantabhadra-utsāhana)-- Chapter XXVI.
Secondary>
Bareau, 1969.
Basham, 1981.
Harrison, 1987.
Jan, 1981.
Kajiyama, 1985.
Lethcoe, 1977.
Mus, 1926.
Nagao, 1981.
Schopen, 1977, 1979, 1985.
Schuster, 1985.
For further reading>
Birnbaum, 1987.
Buddhāvatamśsaka.
Fontein, 1967.
Fujita, 1980.
Holt, 1991.
Kent, 1982.
la Valle;e Poussin, 1908a.
Perfection of Wisdom in 8000 lines (Conze)
Tay, C. N. (1976).
Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa.
Questions and topics>
(1) Does it make sense to talk about emptiness on the one hand, and
merit on the other, about the need for self-effort and the saving power
of the bodhisattvas= Can you explain this paradox without relying on the
doctrine of upāya=
(2) Describe in your own words possible social functions for buddhas
and bodhisattvas as religious ideals and as ethical paradigms.
(3) Discuss chapters XI and XIV from the perspective of the value of
visionary scenes as expressions of a relationship between believer and
ideal being.
Item #6 Practices and Events
This unit can be used as a supplement or a recapitulation of the previous
two, or it can be used instead of the previous two. The focus here is on
the form and content of symbols viewed from the perspective of religious
practices. This includes a discussion of the ritual gestures and procedures
accompanying the dedication of merit, the worship of stūpas and buddha
images, and pilgrimages. Although most of the evidence for such practices
is indirect, it is worth speculating on the ritual and religious practice
that may underlie the Lotus Sūtra. Various scholars have claimed
to see evidence of the cult of the book, the cult of the stūpa, and the
cult of the bodhisattvas in the Lotus Sūtra. One can also discuss
the role of former buddhas, future buddhas, and eternal buddhas (or rather,
buddhas whose life span is measureless or incalculable). The meaning of
the miraculous, the fantastic, and belief in miraculous events and intervention
by the bodhisattvas is best discussed under this heading too.
All of these are themes found throughout Mahāyāna Sūtra literature,
and therefore can be studied as elements for a narrative reconstruction
of the history, doctrines and practices of Mahāyāna.
In item #9 the problem of sacred place and sacred journey is discussed
in connection to the figure of Avalokiteśvara and his further development
in East Asia. Thus, the present item #6 overlaps with item #9, one can
combine the two into one single unit or lesson, omitting items 7 &;8.
Primary>
Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti), Chapter IV.
Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa, Chapter XI.
Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas, Chapter XIV.
Life span of the Tathagata (āyusã-pramāña), Chapter XV.
Dedication of Merit (puñya-paryāya), Chapter XVI.
The Merits of Rejoicing in Merit (anumodanā-puñya-nirdeśa), Chapter
XVII.
Miraculous Powers (rãddhy-abhisamśskāra), Chapter XX.
Dhārañī, Chapter XXI.
The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing), Chapter XXIV.
Secondary>
Bharati, 1970.
Birnbaum, 1987.
Darian, 1970.
Dykstra, 1983.
Holt, 1991.
Kitagawa, 1967.
la Valle;e Poussin, 1908a.
Osaka Shiritsu Bijutsukan, 1987.
Reischauer, 1955.
Schopen, 1975, 1985.
Tay, C. N. (1976)
For further reading>
Banzai, 1973.
Bharati, 1970.
Birnbaum, 1987.
Darian, 1970.
Davidson, 1954.
Davidson, 1992.
Dykstra, 1983.
Fontein, 1967.
Keyes, 1975, 1987.
Mallman, 1948.
Mus, 1926.
Nakamura, K. M. 1973.
Ono, 1982-1983.
Schopen, 1979.
Snellgrove, 1957, 1961.
Statler, 1983.
Tanabe &;Tanabe, 1989.
Tanabe, 1988.
Questions and topics>
(1) Discuss the concept of transference or dedication of merit as it
appears in the Lotus Sūtra. Consider its possible importance in
the development of Mahāyāna in light of the historical reconstructions
proposed by Hirakawa, Bechert, and Schopen.
(2) What intimations do you find in the Lotus Sūtra that its
audience may have engaged in one of the following practices> the worship
of stūpas, the worship of buddha images, some form of cult of the book,
or pilgrimages.
(3) Discuss the role, in the narrative development of the Lotus Sūtra,
of ideal or celestial figures such as buddhas and bodhisattvas.
(4) Can we speak of a cult of the bodhisattvas in the Lotus Sūtra=
Explain and justify your answer.
(5) Discuss the appearance and role of former buddhas, future buddhas,
and eternal buddhas in the Lotus Sūtra.
Item #7 Sacred Speech
This item introduces the theme of religion and language in the Lotus
Sūtra. This covers issues such as the sacred word, sacred speech, orality
and inspired speech, as well as the question of the transmission and interpretation
of the sacred word. Although all these themes overlap considerably with
the question of skillful means, I prefer to bracket the concept temporarily
to give ourselves time to reflect on other meanings of language, metaphor,
and transmission. As a lesson or unit, this item can be started with a
close reading of the chapters on
dhārañīs and dharma-bhāñakas.
Primary>
The Burning House, Chapter III.
Simile of the Rain Cloud, Chapter V.
Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City, Chapter VII.
Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāñaka), Chapter X.
Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stūpa, Chapter XI.
Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 2 (dharmabhāñaka-anuśamśsā),
Chapter XVIII.
Dhārañī, Chapter XXI.
Purva-yoga 2, Bhaisãajya-rājā, Chapter XXII.
Gadgadasvara, Chapter XXIII.
Secondary>
Bechert, 1957, 1963, 1973.
Braarvig, 1985.
Collins, 1990.
Cousins, 1987.
Gombrich, 1990.
Graham, 1987b.
Harrison, 1987.
Hoffman, 1992.
McQueen, 1981, 1982.
Rawlinson, 1987.
For further reading>
Beardsley, 1977.
Cabezo;n, 1992.
Clark, 1930.
Graham, 1987a.
Questions and topics>
(1) Discuss one example of a statement or narrative in the Lotus
Sūtra that suggests a conscious conception of language and discourse.
(2) How is language used or conceptualized in the service of the texts
apologetic arguments=
(3) Discuss the concept of inspired speech from one of the following
perspectives> the question of the visionary origins of Mahāyāna, the rhetoric
of sacred texts, Western interest in the Lotus Sūtra and its message,
the question of orthodoxy.
(4) Without referring to the doctrine of skillful means, reconstruct
a Buddhist apology for the authority of the sacred utterances of the Buddha
--base your apologetic argument on statements culled from the Lotus
Sūtra.
Item #8 Literary Themes
In this unit the emphasis on language shifts from discourse to text,
and from sacred speech to literary form and function. The Lotus Sūtra
is studies as a "work" of sacred literature or as an anthology of sacred
texts. One can begin by using the dhārañī as an example of a literary
genre, discussing its functions and forms. A few narrative passages can
be chosen as pretexts for a discussion of literary elements, structures
and devices such as figures, actants, metaphors.
The lesson(s) could include a comparison with similar forms in other
Sūtras.
Primary>
Preamble (Nidāna), Chapter I.
The Burning House, Chapter III.
Simile of the Rain Cloud, Chapter V.
Prediction 1 (vyākaraña), Chapter VI.
Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City, Chapter VII.
Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāñaka), Chapter X.
Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa, Chapter XI.
Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas, Chapter XIV.
Pūrva-yoga 2, Bhaisaja-raja, Chapter XXII.
The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing), Chapter XXIV.
Transmission (anuparīndanā), Chapter XXVII.
Secondary>
Braarvig, 1985.
Darian, 1970.
Gombrich, 1990.
Kent, 1982.
Smith, W. C., 1989.
For further reading>
Bechert, 1973.
Chang, 1983. Mahāratnakūèa.
Conze, 1973. The Perfection of Wisdom in eight thousand lines.
Dantinne, 1983.
Fujita, 1980.
Kajiyama, 1985.
Lamotte, 19621976. Vimalakīrti.
Mus, 1926.
Regamey, 1990. Bhadramāyākāravyākaraña.
Questions and topics>
(1) Discuss the figure of Prabhūtaratna and the event of his apparition,
as literary devices used to create changes in perspective, space and time
in the Sūtra\s audience.
(2) Discuss any aspect of the use of metaphor in the Lotus Sūtra
that you think can help advance our understanding of the nature of tropes
in religious discourse.
(3) Analyze the narrative structure of the Sūtra or of any of the imbedded
stories. Explain how such an analysis can help us understand the text as
a religious text. If you wish to challenge the assumptions behind
this question regarding the relationship between literature and religion,
you can use such a challenge as your paper topic.
(4) Advance your own hypothesis regarding the function or history of
the verse portions in the Sūtra. Provide evidence that could help prove
or disprove your hypothesis.
Item #9 Many Texts in a Single Sūtra
This item continues the analysis of the previous one, but here we consider
as independent texts some of the subtexts or text fragments that compose
the Sūtra. Special attention is devoted to the 24th chapter (25th in Chinese),
to its litany, its artistic representations, and its possible connection
with pilgrimage cycles in India. Lectures will have to rely heavily on
comparative hypothesis --looking at pilgrimage cycles in Hinduism and in
China, and into texts like the Mahāmayūrī and the Gañdãavyūha.
The discussion can begin with the dhārañīs and move on to the litany,
but the focus of this unit is extended narrative sequences. Apart from
the obvious case of the "parables," other subtexts amenable to treatment
as stock narratives, allusive narrative, or echoes, include the story of
the Daughter of the Nāga King and several pūrva-yogas and related narrative
segments (e.g. Sadāparibhūta, Bhaisãajyarājā, etc.).
Primary>
Preamble (Nidāna)-- Chapter I.
The Burning House, Chapter III.
Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti), Chapter IV.
Simile of the Rain Cloud, Chapter V.
Prediction 1 (vyākaraña), Chapter VI.
Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City, Chapter VII.
Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāñaka), Chapter X.
Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stupa, Chapter XI.
Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas, Chapter XIV.
Dedication of Merit (puñya-paryāya), Chapter XVI.
Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 2 (dharmabhāñaka-anuśamśsā),
Chapter XVIII.
The Patience and Humility of the Bodhisattva Sadāparibhūta-- Chapter
XIX.
Dhārañī, Chapter XXI.
The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing), Chapter XXIV.
Secondary>
Darian, 1970.
Dykstra, 1983.
Fujita, 1980.
Holt, 1991.
Kajiyama, 1985.
Kato, et al., 1975.
la Valle;e Poussin, 1908a
Schopen, 1978.
Tay, 1976.
For further reading>
Birnbaum, 1987.
Davidson, 1954.
Mallman, 1948.
Mus, 1926.
Nakamura, K. M., 1973.
Osaka Shiritsu Bijutsukan, 1987.
Schopen, 1985.
Soper, 1959.
Tanabe &;Tanabe 1989.
Questions and topics>
(1) Compare the position and content of the Avalokiteśvara litany in
the Lotus Sūtra and the Avatamsaka (Gañdãavyūha).
(2) Speculate on possible extra-textual reasons for the inclusion of
the 24th chapter in the Lotus Sūtra --what does this suggest regarding
the history, nature, and cohesion of Sūtras=
(3) Formulate a preliminary theory regarding the defining characteristics
(formal, functional) of the pūrva-yoga.
Item #10 Buddhist Polemics Revisited
By way of conclusion, the class revisits some of the doctrinal and polemical
issues raised in Items 1 through 5. The goal is to help the student (and
the instructor) integrate and internalize the perspectives presented in
all of the previous discussions, in other words, to lay the groundwork
for a new synthesis and understanding of the old categories, and perhaps
the beginnings of alternative hypotheses and paradigms.
The concepts revisited include upāya (upāyakauśalya), emptiness and
illusory bodies, Mahāyāna and ekayāna, the nature of nirvana (redefinitions
in the Lotus Sūtra), the eternal buddha and "docetism," broad concepts
of Buddhahood and Bodhisattvahood. I prefer to approach these problems
by reformulating and reposing the question of the origins of Mahāyāna,
asking what if there would be any difference in the answer if we looked
at the Lotus Sūtra as a text of Mahāyāna instead of looking at it
as a document for the early history of Mahāyāna.
Primary>
Upāya (upāyakauśalya), Chapter II.
The Burning House, Chapter III.
Prediction 2, Chapter VIII.
Prediction 3, Chapter IX.
Life span of the Tathagata (āyusã-pramāña), Chapter XV.
The Patience and Humility of the Bodhisattva Sadāparibhūta, Chapter
XIX.
Samantabhadra (samantabhadra-utsāhana), Chapter XVI.
Transmission (anuparīndanā), Chapter XXVII.
Secondary>
Anesaki, 1908.
Bareau, 1969.
Basham, 1981.
Bechert, 1973.
Darian, 1970.
Kent, 1982.
Masefield, 1986.
Mus, 1926.
Mizuno, 1982.
Schopen, 1978.
For further reading>
Cabezo;n, 1992.
Davidson, 1992.
Lamotte, 1954.
Hirakawa, 1990, chapters 16-18.
Mus, 1926.
Mizuno, 1982.
Nakamura, 1987, chapter 16F.
Tao-sheng (Kim, 1990).
Williams, 1989, chapter 7.
Winternitz, 1927.
Yuyama, 1970.
Questions and topics>
(1) In light of what you have learned so far, reconsider the question
of the Lotus Sūtra as a witness to early Mahāyāna in India.
(2) Consider the Lotus Sūtra as an artifact of early Mahāyāna.
What can you tell about the nature of Mahāyāna= What sort of human phenomenon
was it=
(3) Consider the Lotus Sūtra as a collection of voices from an
early stage in the formation of Mahāyāna. Trace one of these voices in
the text and imagine how this voice would explain the connection (historical
or spiritual or both) between the words of the Lotus Sūtra and the
words of the Buddha S:ākyamuni.
Bibliography
Anesaki, Masaharu. (1908). Docetism (Buddhist). In Hasting\s Encyclopaedia
of religion (vol. 3, 835-840). New York> Scribner\s Sons.
Banzai, Mayumi. (1973). A pilgrimage to the 88 temples in Shikoku Island.
Tokyo> Kodansha.
Bareau, Andre;. (1969). The superhuman personality of the Buddha and
its symbolism in the Mahāparinirvāña Sūtra of the Dharma-guptaka. In
Joseph M. Kitagawa and Charles H. Long, eds., Myths and symbols> Studies
in honor of Mircea Eliade (pp. 9-21). Chicago> University of Chicago Press.
Basham, A. L. (1981). The evolution of the concept of bodhisattva. In
L. Kawamura, ed., The bodhisattva doctrine in Buddhism (pp. 19-59). Waterloo,
Ontario> Wilfred Laurier University Press.
Bhadramāyākāravyākaraña. See Regamey (1990).
Bharati, Agehananda. (1970). Pilgrimage sites and Indian civilization.
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Summary of Chapter Content and Correspondences
Preamble (Nidāna)
Kern, Chapter I> Introduction
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 1. Introduction).
Upāya (upāyakauśalya)
Kern, Chapter II> Skilfulness
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 2. Expedient Devices).
The Burning House
Kern, Chapter III> A Parable
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 3. Parable).
Predisposition and Commitment (adhimukti)
Kern, Chapter IV> Disposition
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 4. Belief and Understanding).
Simile of the Rain Cloud
Kern, Chapter V> On Plants
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 5. Medicinal Herbs).
Prediction 1 (vyākaraña)
Kern, Chapter VI> Announcement of Future Destiny
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 6. Bestowal of Prophecy).
Pūrva-yoga, and Parable of the Conjured City Kern, Chapter VII> Ancient
Devotion
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 7. Parable of the Conjured City).
Prediction 2
Kern, Chapter VIII>Announcement of the Future Destiny of the
Five Hundred Monks
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 8. Receipt of Prophecy by Five Hundred Disciples).
Prediction 3
Kern, Chapter IX> Announcement of the Future Destiny of Ananda, Rahula,
and the Two Thousand Monks (_ Hurvitz, Chapter 9. Prophecies Conferred
on Learners and Adepts).
Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 1 (dharmabhāñaka)
Kern, Chapter X> The Preacher
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 10. Preachers of Dharma).
Prabhūtaratna> Apparition of the Heavenly Stūpa Kern, Chapter XI>
Apparition of a Stupa (_ (_ Hurvitz, Chapter 11. Apparition of the Jeweled
Stupa,
&;Chapter 12. Devadatta).
Exertion
Kern, Chapter XII> Exertion
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 13. Fortitude.
Sukhavihāra
Kern, Chapter XII> Peaceful Life
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 14. Comfortable Conduct).
Miraculous Apparition of Bodhisattvas
Kern, Chapter XIV>Issuing of Bodhisattvas from the Gaps of the Earth
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 16. Welling Up Out of the Earth).
Life span of the Tathagata (āyusã-pramāña)
Kern, Chapter XV> Duration of Life of the Tathagata
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 16. The Life Span of the Thus Come One).
Dedication of Merit (puñya-paryāya)
Kern, Chapter XVI>Of Piety
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 17. Discrimination of Merits).
The Merits of Rejoicing in Merit (anumodanā-puñya-nirdeśa) Kern, Chapter
XVII>Indication of the Meritoriousness of Joyful Acceptance
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 18. The Merits of Appropriate Joy).
Inspired Speech and Oral Transmission 2 (dharmabhāñaka-anuśamśsā)
Kern, Chapter XVIII> The Advantages of a Religious Preacher (Hurvitz,
Chapter 19. The Merits of the Dharma-Preacher).
The Patience and Humility of the Bodhisattva Sadāparibhūta
Kern, Chapter XIX> Sadāparibhūta
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 20. The Bodhisattva Never Disparaging).
Miraculous Powers (rãddhy-abhisamśskāra)
Kern, Chapter XX> Conception of the Transcendent Power of the Tathagata
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 21. The Supernatural Powers of the Thus Come One).
Dhārañī
Kern, Chapter XXI> Spells (_ Hurvitz, Chapter 26. Dharani).
Purva-yoga 2, Bhaisajya-rājā
Kern, Chapter XXII> Ancient Devotion of Bhaishagyaraga
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 23. The Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine
King).
Gadgadasvara
Kern, Chapter XXIII> Gadgadasvara
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 24. The Bodhisattva Fine Sound).
The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra (Guanyin-jing).
Kern, Chapter XXIV> The All-sided One
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 25. The Gateway to Everywhere of the Bodhisattva
He Who Observes the Sounds of the World).
Pūrva-yoga 3 (S:ubhavyūharāja)
Kern, Chapter XXV> Ancient Devotion
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 27. The Former Affairs of the King Fine Adornment).
Samantabhadra (samantabhadra-utsāhana)
Kern, Chapter XXVI> Encouragement of Samantabhadra
(_ Hurvitz, Chapter 28. The Encouragement of the Bodhisattva
Universally Worthy).
Transmission (anuparīndanā)
Kern, Chapter XXVII>The Period (_ Hurvitz, Chapter 22. Entrustment).
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