The Lotus Sūtra in Early Japanese Buddhism

Paul Groner
University of Virginia

NOTE: The following outline suggests a number of topics concerning the Lotus Sūtra in early Japanese history. I have not suggested a schedule for the lectures, because instructors will want to develop lectures that suit their own needs. Considerable room for expansion and contraction exist depending on whether the instructor wishes to bring in topics such as Hossō (Japanese Yogācāra), Pure Land and Esoteric Buddhism to contrast with the Lotus Sūtra.

I. The Lotus Sūtra during the Asuka and Nara periods.

A. The Lotus Sūtra played an important role early in Japanese Buddhism as one of the three scriptures chosen for lectures by Shōtoku Taishi. The other two were Vimalakrti and rmāladev. The latter two texts were probably chosen because lectures commissioned by lay believer and woman. The Lotus may have been used because it was considered to be the supreme text. In addition, later cult activities around Prince Shōtoku were tied to Lotus. For example, Shōtoku was considered to be an incarnation of the T'ien-t'ai patriarch, Hui-ssu, or a manifestation of Kannon, an important bodhisattva closely connected with the Lotus Sūtra. The connection with Hui-ssu was used by Tendai monks despite the fact that Hui-ssu died several years after Shōtoku was born. In addition, Shōtoku's alleged commentary on the Lotus relied heavily on Fa-yn, a Chinese commentator criticized by Chih-i.

B. The Lotus Sūtra also was connected with protection of the nation. One of a number of texts chanted for that reason. Others such as the apocryphal Jen-wang ching (Sutra of the Benevolent King) and the Suvaraprabh?sa (with dh?ran protecting the nation) had clear ties to state Buddhism. The Lotus may have been chosen because of the high regard in which it was held as the "king of Sūtras."

C. The Lotus was important for women. E.g. the Kokubunniji (Provincial nunneries) were called Hokke metsuzaiji (Lotus nunneries for the eradication of sins). They were probably given this appellation at the behest of Empress Kōmyō, an ardent Buddhist. She may well have been fascinated by the story of the N?ga girl.

D. Chien-chen (Ganjin), the Chinese monk who introduced orthodox ordinations into Japan used Lotus Sūtra imagery on his Precepts Platform and introduced Tendai texts into Japan.

Readings: Nakamura, Miraculous Stories from the Japanese Buddhist Tradition, selections for folk traditions concerning the Lotus Sūtra; the introduction mentions useful information on women in early Japanese Buddhism.

Matsunaga, Foundation of Japanese Buddhism, selections on Prince Shōtoku, Ganjin and Kokubunji

II. The Lotus Sūtra during the early Heian period: Saichō (766-822).

A. TheLotus as a debate topic. Commentaries on the Lotus had been written by the patriarchs of most of the major Chinese schools imported to Japan. Thus scholars from the Sanron and Hossō schools had debated the meaning of the text even during the Nara period. When Saichō became interested in Tendai, he held lectures on the text on Mount Hiei and invited monks from Nara to attend.

B. Saichō's debates with Tokuitsu

1. The background of the debates. Hossō domination of Japanese Buddhism. This section of the course provides an opportunity to discuss the importance of institutional history as a background for doctrinal controversy. Among the topics that might be explored are the reasons for Hossō domination (with emphasis on their connections to the Fujiwara clan through Kōfukuji). Note that Hossō domination was only tangentially related to its doctrinal position.

2. Buddha-nature: Certain Hossō teachings a brief introduction to certain key Hossō doctrines such as the five types of practitioners and the religious goals they might ultimately aspire to reach, the difference between Buddha-nature in principle (ri-Busshō) and Buddha-nature in practice (gyō-Busshō). The social implications of teachings concerning icchantikas might be noted.

3. Arguments over the path.

a. Comparison with Hossō views of path structure, elucidation of why Hossō monks believed it might take eons to realize Buddhahood and why Tendai monks felt the goal was close at hand. Note the nature of defilements, practice, and wisdom according to each school.

b. Saichō also used free interpretations of the Lotus Sūtra as is demonstrated by his commentary on the story of the N?ga girl in his arguments for sokushin jōbutsu (realization of Buddhahood with this very body). The story had not been commented on extensively by earlier scholar-monks. This would also provide an opportunity to bring in more about Esoteric Buddhism by comparing the views of Saichō and Kkai on sokushin jōbutsu.

4. Saichō's use of Lotus in his classification of teachings.

a. Schools based on Sūtras vs. schools based on _?stras.

b. Classifications based on types of vehicles; these bring up the relationship between path structure and doctrinal ranking.

c. Instead of using Lotus as the supreme teaching of Buddhism that encompassed and integrated all other forms of Buddhism, Saichō elevated the Lotus above all other forms, rejecting them instead of incorporating them. This approach is demonstrated in his teaching that Japanese all have Perfect faculties. His rejection of the traditional Buddhist precepts and desire to establish Pure Mah?y?na temples also reflect this tendency.

C. Esoteric Buddhism and the Lotus Sūtra. The Lotus was a natural candidate for incorporation with Esoteric (or Tantric) Buddhism because it had been hidden for forty years. Thus it had been easy for Chinese commentators (e.g. I-hsing) to combine the two traditions. Saichō's argument that the Lotus Sūtra and Esoteric Buddhism had the same purport could be compared with Kkai's view of the relationship between Esoteric Buddhism. Also compare their views on the relationship between ?kyamuni and Mah?vairocana. This section of the course could provide an introduction to Esoteric Buddhism.

Readings on Saichō:

Paul Groner. "The Lotus Sūtra and Saichō's Interpretation of the Realization of Buddhahood with This Very Body," in The Lotus Sūtra in Japanese Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), pp. 53-74.

--------. Saichō: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School (Berkeley: Berkeley Buddhist Series, 1984.

Tamura Kōy "The Doctrinal Dispute Between the Tendai and Hossō Sects." Acta Asiatica 1984: 48-81.

Ui Hakuju. "A Study of Japanese Tendai Buddhism. Philosophical Studies of Japan 1 (1959): 33-74.

Weinstein, Stanley. "The Beginnings of Esoteric Buddhism in Japan." Journal of Asian Studies 34.1 (1974): 177-191.

General readings on Tendai:

Hazama Jikō. "The Characteristics of Japanese Tendai." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 101-112.

Petzold, Bruno. Tendai Buddhism. Tokyo: International Buddhist Exchange Center, 1979.

Tamura Yoshirō. "Tendaishū." Encyclopedia of Religion 14: 396-401.

III. Japanese Tendai after Saichō and the Lotus Sūtra

Few secondary sources on this period exist. Among the topics that might be mentioned are: the increasing domination of Esoteric Buddhism over Lotus Sūtra teachings. The interplay between the two in interpretations of sokushin jōbutsu could be discussed.

A. The evolution of monastic discipline towards a laxer model (with special emphasis on Lotus Sūtra models of practice such as the tendency to emphasize the anrakugyō (sereneand pleasant activities) over the rules of the Fan-wang ching.

B. The efforts by Japanese monks to fit Esoteric texts into Tendai doctrinal classification schemes. This theme could be traced from the Tōketsu (Questions concerning doctrine submitted to Chinese monks for decisions), Ennin, Enchin, and Annen.

C. The growth of Pure Land Buddhism in Tendai. At first, it was to have been practiced as the Constantly-walking Meditation specified by Chih-i. But Ennin imported a different type of ritual that had been developed by Fa-chao in China. This practice eventually led to Genshin and his jō yōshū (Essentials of Salvation). Lotus meditation was often practiced in conjunction with Pure Land meditation. Note the many biographies in the Hokke genki that mention rebirth. This section of the course could also be used to introduce Pure Land meditation and devotional practices. The treatment of Amit?bha in the Lotus Sūtra could be contrasted with its interpretation in Japanese Tendai circles.

D. The Lotus Sūtra continued to be a topic of debate. Ryōgen organized the wa debates, an event that played an importrant role in the eventual triumph of his faction in Tendai and the popularization of Tendai teachings amongst the nobility. His student, Genshin, although famed for his Pure Land views, was also a prolific author of works connected with Lotus Sūtra. For example, his Ichijō yōketsu carried the debates with Hossō monks to their highest point. .

E. Tendai doctrine, often in a watered-down form, influenced Japanese literature. Among the themes that captured the imagination of authors was the three-thousand realms discerned in a single instant and the realization of Buddhahood by grasses and trees.

Readings:

Dykstra, Yoshiko K. Miraculous Tales of the Lotus Sūtra from Ancient Japan: The Dainihonkoku Hokekyōkenki of Priest Chingan. selections.

Groner, Paul. "Annen, Tankei, Henjō and Monastic Discipline in the Tendai School: The Background of the Futsūju bosatsukai kōshaku." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 129-160.

--------. "The Fan-wang ching and Monastic Discipline in Japanese Tendai: A Study of Annen's Futsū jubosatsukai kōshaku," in Robert Buswell (ed.) Buddhist Apocryphal Literature, pp. 251-290. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990.

--------. Saichō, pp. 206-207.

--------. "Shortening the Path: The Interpretation of the Realization of Buddhahood in This Very Existence in the Early Tendai School," in Robert Buswell and Robert Gimello (eds.), Paths to Liberation: The M?rga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, pp. 439-474.. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992.

Kamens, Edward. The Buddhist Poetry of the Great Kamo Priestess: Daisaiin Senshi and Hosshin Wakashū Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 1990.

--------. The Three Jewels: A Study and Translation of Minamoto Tamenori's Sanbōe. Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 1988.

LaFleur. "Symbol and Yūgen: Shunzei's Use of Tendai Buddhism," in The Karma of Words. pp. 80-106. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.

--------. "Saigyō and the Buddhist Value of Nature." History of Religions 13.2: (1974): 227-248.

Matsunaga, Foundation of Japanese Buddhism, selections, selections on Ennin, Enchin, and Annen.

Reischauer, E. O., trans. Ennin's Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China. New York: Ronald Press, 1955.

________. Ennin's Travels in T'ang China. New York: Ronald Press, 1955.

Rhodes, Robert. Ph.D. dissertation on the Ichijō yōketsu. Harvard University, forthcoming.

Strickmann, Michel. "Homa in East Asia." In Agni, ed. by Fritz Staal, 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982) 2: 418-455.

IV. The evolution of the Tendai establishment on Mount Hiei.

A. What buildings were established that had connections with Lotus Sūtra or T'ien-t'ai practices. Who paid for them? What did they expect? E.g. A Lotus-meditation Hall was established by Saichō and probably used in much the same way as in classical Chinese T'ien-t'ai. However, by the time of Ryōgen (912-985), such halls were built for the performance of yearly observances, the emphasis had been moved from realization of non-substantiality to the merit produced by the ceremony and how it would insure the prospering of future generations.

B. Lotus-meditation Halls were frequently built in conjunction with Constantly-walking Halls, demonstrating the co-existence of Pure Land and Lotus devotion during this time.

C. The practices associated with the Shijōkōhō (ceremony of the Buddha of Abundant Light). Although the ritual is not directly associated with the Lotus Sūtra, the main image is a cosmic image of ?kyamuni associated with the North Star. Lotus Sūtra practices might be said to have paved the way for the introduction of the image and the associated practices to Tendai by Ennin.

D. For a different set of institutions associated with the Lotus Sūtra, note the development of Shugendō practices on the Kunisaki peninsula, or the Sannō cult on Hiei.

E. The Lotus Sūtra and monastic education. Medieval Tendai instituted a series of examinations that monks were to pass before they could hold high offices. These examinations generally followed the format of the Yuima-e (assembly on the Vimalakrti-nirdea), a lecture and examination that was dominated by Hossō monks. The Tendai system, called the Hokke daie, generally focussed on topics taken from Chih-i's commentaries on the Lotus Sūtra, but gave these topics a distinctly Japanese twist.

F. The issue of nuns. Although Tendai doctrines were based on universal enlightenment, that was rarely applied to women, because women were barred from sites such as Mount Hiei. As a result, women developed their own forms of religiosity, some of which were based on the story of the N?ga girl in the Lotus Sūtra.

Readings:

Grapard, Alan. "Lotus in the Mountain, Mountain in the Lotus: Rokugō Kaizan Nimmon Daibosatsu Hongi." Monumenta Nipponica 41: 20-50.

--------. "The Textualized Mountain--Enmountained Text: The Lotus Sūtra in the Kunisaki Peninsula," in The Lotus Sūtra in Japanese Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), pp. 159-190.move these 2 to Shugendo

--------. "Linguistic Cubism--A Singularity of Pluralism in the Sannō Cult." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 211-234.

Groner, Paul. Ryōgen, forthcoming.

McMullin, Neil. "The Enryaku-ji and the Gion Shrine-Temple Complex in the Mid-Heian Period." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 161-184.

--------. "The Lotus Sūtra and Politics in the Mid-Heian Period," in The Lotus Sūtra in Japanese Culture, pp. 119-142.

--------. "The Sanmon-Jimon Schism in the Tendai School of Buddhism." Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 7.1: 83-105.

Rhodes, Robert. "The Kaihōgyō Practice of Mt. Hiei." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 185-202.

Stevens, John. The Marathon Monks of Mount Hiei. Boulder: Shambala, 1988.

V. Late Heian period Buddhism: hongaku (innate enlightenment)

One might approach this topic by reviewing traditional treatments of Buddha-nature and then looking at several aspects of hongaku. Because this topic has not been discussed much in western languages, a systematic presentation is difficult, but the following topics might be mentioned.

A. Classification of doctrine: the fourfold system where each successive stage negates the previous one (shishu kōhai): texts previous to the Lotus Sūtra, Shakumon, Honmon, and kanjin. Juxtapose this with the more traditional kaie systems.

B. The tendency to explain practices in ways that affirm this-world. In particular, rather than simply describing this as a degeneration of traditional Tendai views, note the similarities and differences with world-affirming teachings such as the the three-thousand realms discerned in a single instant.

C. The collapse of understanding, practice, and realization should be noted. Practice becomes everyday activities.

D. These teachings are supported by recourse to fabricated oral transmissions, many of which revolve around the Lotus Sūtra.

Readings:

Kuroda Toshio, "Historical Consciousness and Hon-jaku Philosophy in the Medieval Period on Mount Hiei," in The Lotus Sūtra in Japanese Culture, pp. 143.

Ishida Mitsuyuki. "Tendai Elements in the Doctrinal Systems of Hōnen's Disciples." Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 11.2 (1963): 808-798.

Rhodes, Robert. "Saichō's Mappō tōmyōki: The Candle of the Latter Dharma." Eastern Buddhist 13.1 (1980): 79-103.

Shirato Waka. "Inherent Enlightenment and Saichō's Acceptance of the Bodhisattva Precepts." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 113-128.

Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse. "Some Disputed Writings in the Nichiren Corpus: Textual, Hermeneutical, and Historical Problems. Ph.D. dissertation UCLA, 1990.

Tamura Yoshirō. "Critique of Original Awakening Thought in Shōshin and Dōgen." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 11.2 (1984): 243-266.

--------. "Japanese Culture and the Tendai Concept of Original Enlightenment." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 203-210.

Readings on Japanese Tendai during the Heian Period

Grapard, Alan. "Lotus in the Mountain, Mountain in the Lotus: Rokugō Kaizan Nimmon Daibosatsu Hongi." Monumenta Nipponica 41: 20-50.

--------. "Linguistic Cubism--A Singularity of Pluralism in the Sannō Cult." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 211-234.

Groner, Paul. "Annen, Tankei, Henjō and Monastic Discipline in the Tendai School: The Background of the Futsju bosatsukai kōshaku." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 129-160.

--------. "The Fan-wang ching and Monastic Discipline in Japanese Tendai: A Study of Annen's Futs jubosatsukai kōshaku," in Robert Buswell (ed.) Buddhist Apocryphal Literature, pp. 251-290. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990.

--------. "The Lotus Sūtra and Saichō's Interpretation of the Realization of Buddhahood with This Very Body," in The Lotus Sūtra in Japanese Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), pp. 53-74.

--------. Saichō: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School (Berkeley: Berkeley Buddhist Series, 1984.

Hazama Jikō. "The Characteristics of Japanese Tendai." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 101-112.

Hurvitz, Leon (tr). Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976.

Ishida Mitsuyuki. "Tendai Elements in the Doctrinal Systems of Hōnen's Disciples." Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 11.2 (1963): 808-798.

Kuroda Toshio, "Historical Consciousness and Hon-jaku Philosophy in the Medieval Period on Mount Hiei," in The Lotus Sūtra in Japanese Culture, pp. 143.

McMullin, Neil. "The Enryaku-ji and the Gion Shrine-Temple Complex in the Mid-Heian Period." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 161-184.

--------. "The Lotus Sūtra and Politics in the Mid-Heian Period," in The Lotus Sūtra in Japanese Culture, pp. 119-142.

--------. "The Sanmon-Jimon Schism in the Tendai School of Buddhism." Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 7.1: 83-105.

Reischauer, E. O., trans. Ennin's Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China. New York: Ronald Press, 1955.

________. Ennin's Travels in T'ang China.

Rhodes, Robert. "The Kaihōgyō Practice of Mt. Hiei." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 185-202.

________. "Saichō's Mappō tōmyōki: The Candle of the Latter Dharma." Eastern Buddhist 13.1 (1980): 79-103.

Stevens, John. The Marathon Monks of Mount Hiei. Boulder: Shambala, 1988.

Strickmann, Michel. "Homa in East Asia." In Agni, ed. by Fritz Staal, 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982) 2: 418-455.

Tamura Kwansei. "Some Aspects of Oral Transmission in Japanese Tendai Buddhism." Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 10.2 (1962): 743-737.

Tamura Kōy "The Doctrinal Dispute Between the Tendai and Hossō Sects." Acta Asiatica 1984: 48-81.

Tamura Yoshirō. "Critique of Original Awakening Thought in Shōshin and Dōgen." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 11.2 (1984): 243-266.

--------. "Japanese Culture and the Tendai Concept of Original Enlightenment." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2-3 (1987): 203-210.

--------. "Tendaish." Encyclopedia of Religion 14: 396-401.

Weinstein, Stanley. "The Beginnings of Esoteric Buddhism in Japan." Journal of Asian Studies 34.1 (1974): 177-191.

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Groner: Notes for course on Lotus Sūtra (), p.